For most of the first century of the United States’ existence, only free white people could become citizens. Following the Civil War, Black people gained citizenship through the Fourteenth Amendment and the right to naturalize under the Naturalization Act of 1870. However, other non-white people in the U.S., such as the Asian Pacific Islander Desi American (APIDA) community, were left uncertain about what protections and rights extended to them. They turned to the courts to test and expand their rights. In this lesson, students learn about the court cases Takao Ozawa v. United States (1922) and United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923). Students will compare and contrast these two cases and discuss the role APIDA people played in challenging racist citizenship practices and laws.